Identificación de los niveles de autoestima en estudiantes de secundaria según: sexo, curso y zona de procedencia

Identification of self-esteem levels in secondary school students in the province of Córdoba according to: sex, grade an area of origin

Pedro Rojas Pedregosa

Faculty of Education, University of Córdoba (Spain)

pedrorojas1219@yahoo.es

RESUMEN

El objetivo del presente estudio trata de mostrar el grado de autoestima existente en el alumnado de secundaria, tanto en zonas urbanas, como rurales, de la provincia de Córdoba (España), atendiendo al género y curso. La muestra consta de 307 estudiantes de cuatro institutos. Se utilizó el cuestionario de evaluación de la autoestima para alumnos de enseñanza secundaria de García (1995). Para los resultados, existen discrepancias estadísticamente significativas en género: para autoestima física, general, intelectual, emocional, de relaciones con los otros y en la escala independiente de autocrítica. Según el curso, existen diferencias para autoestima física, general y la escala de independencia autocrítica. Por otro lado, se observan correlaciones significativas (leves, entre la edad de los estudiantes y la autoestima física, general y la escala de independencia autocrítica). Estos resultados, son de utilidad para identificar aspectos específicos de la autoestima que podrían ser fomentados en el ámbito escolar.

PALABRAS CLAVE

Autoestima; estudiantes; secundaria; educación.

ABSTRACT

The objective of this study is to show the level of self-esteem of secondary school students, both in urban and rural areas and according to gender and year group, in the province of Córdoba (Spain). The sample consists of 307 students from four secondary schools. The Garcia (1995) self-esteem evaluation questionnaire for secondary school students was used. The results show statistically significant discrepancies according to gender: for physical, general, intellectual, emotional self-esteem, relationships with others and on the independent scale of self-criticism. Depending on the year group, there are differences in physical and general self-esteem and the self-critical independence scale. On the other hand, significant correlations are observed (slight ones, between the students’ age and their general and physical self-esteem and the self-critical independence scale). These results are useful in terms of identifying specific aspects of self-esteem that could be fostered in the school environment.

KEYWORDS

Self;esteem; students; secondary school; education.

1. Introduction

The way people connect all the events, which occur daily in their lives, is expressed through their emotions. In the face of these facts, this way of thinking has a noticeable influence on the way they feel and the way they express themselves. Therefore, knowing how to manage or not manage emotions will determine the mood of the subject at any given time, as well as in their daily life. All of this is of the utmost importance for personal growth and positive self-esteem.

If we take into account the above, we can then consider that having optimal levels of self-esteem is a capacity that individuals possess that allows them to make an affirmative assessment of themselves, as well as to hold a generally acceptable opinion as people. As a consequence, to treat self-esteem requires self-construction and daily learning of what happens on a social, physical level etc. These reasons make human beings construct an edification based on their self-concept in order to interact with others, in situations of attachment and friendship, which will support them in maintaining their self-esteem in a favourable state. This cognitive-emotional base will serve to establish a framework or comfort zone in which the individual will move when establishing their friendships, which will promote their emotional development, confidence and self-appreciation when setting challenges or routes to success in their life.

According to Boal (2018), it is not until the age of four that the concepts of self-esteem and self-concept are established in minors with the help of paternal and maternal figures. This is when children begin to compare their real self with the ideal self. There is, already, a first assessment of what they should be, or what they aspire to be. On the other hand, the influence carried by the opinions of others is very much taken into account, since they are summary judgments in the development of the formation of the personality and the state of mind of the individual. That is why human beings, from their birth, are a construct of thoughts, emotions and feelings, which make the base of their idiosyncrasy depend on a good emotional foundation in their own self-esteem.

When the stage of adolescence starts, there is a glimpse of a path of transition that takes the subject from childhood to adulthood. It is an important stage, marked by psychological, physical and emotional changes that cause high, disordered rates of personal stress (Silvia-Escorcia and Mejías-Pérez, 2015). During this time of metamorphosis, they must have a great appreciation of themselves to face their relationship with their specific social and cultural environment.

On the other hand, and taking into account the emotional situation of young people, there are a series of altered behaviours that collide directly with the reality that adults have (fathers, mothers, and teachers among others). The psychological and physical changes fostered during this period of the adolescent’s life makes them face new situations and circumstances. All of this causes a complex reaction of emotional dynamics, which causes them to develop some type of anxiety and low self-esteem, mainly in their physical, intellectual and social appearance.

It is therefore of the utmost importance to provide them with guidance, support, self-worth and training. All of this, aimed at learning and experimenting with situations that will help them to cope better with their problems and, with this, improve their own self-esteem. Similarly, notes Blos (2018), this is when the process of dependency and a separation of a child’s internal objects and close family ties to adolescents culminates. In other words, it leads to an opening towards other external and social bonds, in general, from the transition from a dependent self to an adult self. Likewise, it is observed that the academic performance of students involves a large part of these emotional factors, self-esteem and confidence (Chilca, 2017).

Self-esteem, therefore, is the assessment that the person makes of their own knowledge of it. For Branden (1995), it is a key piece of a human being and a perceived value, as Morato (2019) clarifies. In addition, it is an essential mechanism for adaptation and having balanced relationships with one’s peers. All of this occurs as a result of confidence and the appreciation that this emotion conveys when performing daily tasks.

Therefore, as Silvia-Escorcia and Mejías-Pérez (2015) indicate, it does not stop being a state of mind that is learned and that changes as we learn through actions, that are emotions and feelings that are replicated in similar scenarios of their lives and that, when they occur, evoke situations that increase or diminish self-esteem. In addition, it is related to the ability to achieve goals.

This assessment, which the individual makes when assessing themselves, is made according to the degree of skills that the teenager acquires in their life. These circumstances emanate mainly from various scenarios that will occur during their daily lives, that is to say, in their experience, being able to become positive or negative, depending on the valuation they make of it.

People with high self-esteem manage negative emotions better than those with lower self-esteem. Likewise, the former acquire and manage better emotional resources required to face daily difficulties. In short, working on this feeling in adolescence is key when it comes to the personal, physical, social, academic and psychological construct of young people; indeed, there is enough evidence linking emotional competence and self-esteem (Soriano and Franco, 2010). In addition, people with a high level of emotional intelligence have higher levels of self-esteem and skills that help them understand and regulate emotions that occur in negative or adverse situations, making positive ones emerge at such times. (Schutte, Malouff, Simunek, McKenley & Hollander, 2002)

In terms of the background to this, it should be noted that the term self-esteem was coined by William James in 1890 in his book “Principles of Psychology” (Branden, 2004). Later, research (Rosenberg, 1957, 1965, 1986; Rosenberg & Tielens, 1952; Rosenberg & Simons, 1980) on this concept was resumed, and a new term called self-concept appeared. In the 1980s, the concept of self-esteem started being used in a multitude of professional areas, such as advertising, education or business, to name a few, where it was attributed as an influence as regards the personal success of individuals. (Ventura-León, Caycho-Rodríguez, Barboza-Palomino & Salas, 2018). More recently, three components of the term self-esteem have been extracted, such as cognitive, affective and behavioural (Boal, 2018).

Therefore, self-esteem is one of the oldest concepts in psychology (Ventura-León et al., 2018) and corresponds, according to the RAE (2020), to having a generally positive personal view of one’s self. Even though for other authors, such as Branden (2004), it is still considered the personal ability to face daily challenges with total confidence and affirmation of the moral principles of each person, for Silvia-Escorcia and Mejías-Pérez (2015), it is a construction that forms from the outside in and, above all, from the way people judge it.

In short, security, responsibility, personal autonomy and confidence are a daily commitment, which people have to tackle in all their actions, and which leads them on the path of happiness, with an emotional stability that makes them people who do not have to trivialize their qualities and that becomes the base of their personality (Alcántara, 2005). Therefore, this means having more creative and co-operative attitudes with those of their own kind, maintaining group norms and the established ethics. Self-esteem makes people more friendly, empathetic, open, attentive, and consistent with what they think and do.

Similarly, on the completely opposite end of the scale, we find individuals who have low self-esteem, and who are the most vulnerable because they lack positive stimuli in the various social environments (family, friends, co-workers, etc.) that allow them to have balance in their life. Therefore, we find people who do not know how to find solutions to the difficulties they face because they feel undervalued and/or do not have confidence in their ability to cope. They are also influenced by their body image, looking for social models to imitate. These ideal references are what makes teenagers malleable, stereotyped and with great prejudice when learning to be.

That foundation on which self-esteem must be built, including self-confidence, security, the ability to share and even love, coupled with intellectual, social and cultural skills, must be worked on and experienced from childhood so that they become basic pillars of the positive self-construction of the individual.

Self-esteem, therefore, is linked to several essential components that must be taken into account, which are self-concept, respect and self-knowledge. For this reason, it is essential to know and understand the factors that shape it and that lead to its development in order to establish the necessary strategies for its growth and strengthening.

According to Brandren (1995) there are six pillars on which the concept of self-esteem is based. However, André and Lelord (1999) consider that there are three, whilst Parinello (2002) adds another pillar not considered by the previous authors. Thus, it can be established the basis for working on self-esteem in an adolescent would be: general knowledge about the perception of their skills, status and exterior role; the self-concept of time changing depending on the circumstances of the present moment; the so-called social self in its relationships with others; and the ideal self that projects onto its own image.

Similarly, there are a number of factors that determine this degree of appreciation towards the person, such as the attitude or motivation that the person has regarding positive or negative situations and that encourage them to intervene. There is also the so-called view of the body’s own structure that predisposes the person to accept themselves physically, depending on the influences received from their social and media environment.

In the same way, there is the aptitude that is adopted to face the vicissitudes that occur daily, and which is related to their cognitive reasoning abilities. Consequently, the external assessment that others make, how emotions are reinforced and recognized and feelings expressed, are also fundamental in the assessment that people carry out. And, finally, the resilience or capacity that one has to withstand and overcome the adverse factors which have to be faced on a daily basis, and that helps one to mature as a person.

On the other hand, when working with adolescents we must emphasize self-respect, through which, apart from the ability to learn to accept themselves, they should be aware of maintaining that respect when carrying out actions and acts that possibly compromise their worth. This love for themselves must be inclined to satisfy the achievement of one’s own needs, being aware of emotions and feelings that are experienced in order not to hurt themselves, blaming themselves for things that they are not responsible for. Consequently, they must find value in the things they do and feel proud of them, since, if they are not capable of doing it with themselves, they will not be able to do it with others. In life respect is a fundamental piece in the construction of social relationships and of one’s self-esteem.

Another fundamental aspect is the influence played by social networks and the isolation of people as regards their own self-evaluation. This is an important element when working with teenagers and evaluating this emotion. Furthermore, the investigations by Bisquert-Bover, Giménez-García, Gil-Juliá, Martínez-Gómez and Gil-Llario (2019), as well as the De la Villa, García, Cuetos and Sirvent (2017), show the connection of self-esteem with gender violence and emotional dependence during adolescence.

On the other hand, we can also confirm the influence that exists between self-esteem and a problematic internet use (Moral and Fernández, 2019). We should neither put aside the connection self-esteem has with the use of substances that are toxic for their health and cause psychosocial disorders at this age (Riquelme, García and Serra, 2018). Likewise, suicidal and depressive ideas are related to self-esteem as pointed out by Ceballos-Ospino, Suárez-Colorado, Suescún-Aregocés, Gamarra-Vega, Estefany-González and Sotelo-Manjarres (2015).

Similarly, it must be borne in mind that the term self-esteem is linked to other associated words, which have a direct and positive meaning, which can lead to confusion and it is worthwhile to clarify this, since it has nothing to do with its real meaning. Among them are self-concept and/or self-knowledge. To speak of self-concept is to describe the cognitive perception that each person has about themselves, or as Boal (2018) says, the opinion or the credit that we have as individuals. This attitude is changeable depending on the circumstances given in the social context in which the mentioned subject moves. This identity is identified as the self.

Besides, self-knowledge, linked to other concepts such as self-worth, marks a perfect foundation for personal growth. Getting to learn to know oneself is the starting point of Socratic thought, in the sense that the ultimate and intimate truth is found within the person.

Discovering oneself is the essence of what the human being has as a task, to find the ideal balance between oneself and the reality that surrounds us. This goal is demanded on a social level and causes many fears due to the lack of commitment to getting involved in accepting the facts. Furthermore, the lack of valuation of young people is one of the causes that seriously affect them. Not knowing how to assess yourself properly is the cause of a feeling of serious internal discomfort that affects the sufferer directly and seriously and it is the cause of many setbacks, as previously indicated.

Other important aspects to analyse are the dimensions on which the current self-esteem of young people is based and this will be analysed in the self-esteem evaluation questionnaire for secondary education students. The questionnaire is split into the following sections: physical self-esteem, which aims to assess the self-perception of the students concerning their physical appearance; general self-esteem, which includes the perceptions that the subjects have about themselves in general terms; the self-esteem derived from academic/intellectual skills, which reveals what is the self-perception of the students concerning their performance and intellectual or academic abilities; emotional self-esteem, which refers to how the students perceive themselves in connection to certain situations that may cause stress (Fernández; Román; Reyes y Montenegro, 2021; Valiente-Barroso, C.; Marcos; Arguedas y Martínez, 2021); the self-esteem of relationships with significant others, which reveals the perception that students have regarding their relationships with their parents and teachers; the total self-esteem index, which reflects the level of students’ global self-esteem; and, finally, the independent scale of self-criticism, the aim of which is not to measure any specific aspect of self-esteem. Low scores denote subjects with strong defences and refer to subjects with strong defences to face situations in which their self-esteem may be affected.

2. Method

Objectives

Based on the above considerations, the following objectives are proposed: (1) determine which group (boy vs. girl) presents better results in the different self-esteem categories; (2) establish the existence of significant differences in self-esteem, depending on the academic year in which students are enrolled; (3) study self-esteem levels according to the origin of the students. Gender, academic year group and the location of the school were the grouping variables used to verify the aforementioned objectives.

Population and sample

The total sample size was 307 students, aged between 12 and 19 years old, from 4 public secondary schools in the province of Córdoba (Spain). The average age was x = 13.56 years y de= 1.23. As regards distribution by gender: 155 (50.5 %) were boys 152 (49.5 %) were girls (χ 2 (1, N 307) = 1,718, p = 1.9). These results indicate that both groups are equivalent in the said measurements, so its comparison is feasible.

Table 1

Table 1. Frequencies and percentages by school year.

* Educación Secundaria Obligatoria = Compulsory Secondary Education

Table 2

Table 2. Secondary schools where the research was conducted.

Evaluation tool

To evaluate the variables that were the subject of the study, the García’s Self-Esteem Assessment questionnaire (1995) was used. The inventory consists of 19 items, 16 of which refer to qualities inherent to self-esteem and 3 belong to a self-criticism scale that tries to evaluate to what extent the students are answering due to the effects of social desirability or not. Furthermore, the questionnaire presents a factorial structure, in which the following dimensions of self-esteem are established: physical self-esteem; general; intellectual/academic skills; emotional; relationships with significant others and the independent scale of self-criticism. The questionnaire is answered by choosing one of 4 possible answers that range from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The test measures self-esteem for secondary school students.

The items that make up this questionnaire have characteristics of sufficiently consistent homogeneity and discrimination. As to the reliability of the test, this yields an alpha coefficient of reliability of 0.70. Through the procedure of the two halves, using the formula devised by Spearman (1910) and Brown (1910), a reliability coefficient of 0.70 is also achieved.

Data collection and analysis procedure

The distribution of the evaluation tool to the students, its administration, as well as its coding in the database, was carried out in a similar manner in all of the centres. Permission to carry out the survey was obtained from all of the schools. The subjects completed the survey in their classrooms under the supervision of the interviewer and in the presence of one or more regular teachers who did not intervene directly in this process. The students, who participated voluntarily, were sat individually. The test lasted 20 minutes and participants were informed that the questionnaire would be processed in strictest confidentiality and anonymity. This investigation was created as a retrospective ex post facto design (Montero & León, 2007) with an accidental sampling.

3. Results

This work was carried out with the statistics program IBM SPSS Statistics 20 for data analysis. The study has taken into account the influence of gender variables using the t de Students’ test for the comparisons with two values, as well as the differences between school years using ANOVAS of a factor to detect the groups where significant statistical differences were found. In both tests the test of Levene was used to determine the homogeneity of variances. On the other hand, correlations were found between the age of the students and the established dimensions, as were their corresponding regressions.

Results of the analysis of the dependent variables concerning their gender

The results obtained by a t-test for independent samples with a standard error of α = 0.05 show differences statistically significant between the gender of the subjects and the following variables: total score, self-esteem (physical, intellectual, emotional, relationships) and independence of self-criticism. However, no differences between genders have been found for the general self-esteem variable. Furthermore, according to the average differences, it is men who obtain higher scores in terms of the total score variables, physical self-esteem, general, intellectual, emotional and relationships. Women only obtain higher scores for the variable on self-criticism. This data can be found in the following table:

Table 3

Table 3. Self-esteem scores for boys and girls.

P.T.: Total score; A.F.: Physical self-esteem; A.G.: General self-esteem; A. I.: Self-esteem for academic/intellectual skills; A.E.: Emotional self-esteem; A.R.: Self-esteem for relationships with significant others; E.I.A.: Independent self-criticism scale.

Results of the analysis of the dependent variables for school location (rural vs urban)

The results obtained as regards school location (rural-urban), indicate that there are no statistically significant differences for any of the dimensions studied, as can be seen in Table 4.

Table 4

Table 4. Self-esteem comparison according to rural or urban school location.

Results of the analysis of the ANOVA of a factor according to school year group

The statistics show the following results for physical self-esteem F (3) = 3.999, p =.008; General self-esteem F (3) = 4.345, p =.005; Self-esteem of relationships F (3) = 2.919, p =.034; Independent scale of self-criticism F (3) = 2.974, p =.032. Post-hoc comparisons with the Bonferroti test show that there are differences in physical self-esteem of first year students compared to second and fourth year ones. These differences are also found in general self-esteem among first and fourth year students. Finally, there are also differences in self-esteem regarding relationships between the subjects of the first and fourth ESO year groups. (See table 5).

Table 5

Table 5. One-factor ANOVA comparisons by school year group.

Correlations

As regards the correlations between the age of the students and the dimensions studied, we found significant differences in physical self-esteem (p =, 011); general self-esteem (p =,048) and the independent self-criticism scale (p =,040).

A Pearson’s correlation test is performed to verify if there is a correlation between the different variables of self-esteem and age. As can be seen in Table 6, there are statistically significant differences in the variables of age and physical self-esteem and general self-esteem and the scale of independence of self-criticism. In other words, for older age groups there are lower the scores for these variables and a positive correlation between age and the independent self-criticism scale; this means that the older the student, the higher the scores are on this scale. Although, as it can be seen here, the correlations are weak.

Table 6

Table 6. Correlations between self-esteem and age.

As it can be observed in Table 6, there is a negative correlation between the age variable and physical self-esteem and general self-esteem; in order words, the older the student is, the lower the scores are for these variables and there is a positive correlation between age and the independent self-criticism scale; that means the higher the age, the higher the scores are on this scale. Although, as it can be seen here, the correlations are weak.

Regressions

However, according to the data recorded between these variables, a regression analysis is performed for the variables where correlations are found, to verify that percentages of the dependent variables (VVDD) are explained by the independent variable (VI). In respect of the self-esteem variable, an R2 =.021 is found, thus indicating that 2.15 % of the values obtained in the physical self-esteem variable are explained by the age variable. As regards the general self-esteem variable, an R2 =.013 is obtained, that is, 1.3 % of the values of this variable would be explained by age. In the case of independent self-criticism self-esteem, R2 = 0.14 is obtained so that 14 % of the values of this variable would be explained by the independent age variable. This data can be seen in table 7.

Table 7

Table 7. Regression analysis results.

V.D.: dependent variables; V.I.: independent variable

4. Discussion and Conclusions

The statistical results obtained show that there are differences between the gender of the subjects and the variables of physical, intellectual, emotional self-esteem, relationships and independence of self-criticism. However, no differences were found in the variable of general self-esteem.

It is the boys who obtain the highest scores on these variables. Girls only achieve higher scores for self-criticism. A possible interpretation of this could be due to the interpersonal differences that currently exist, established between both genders, both at the level of physical appearance and emotional intelligence, among others. This would corroborate the investigations cited by Rodríguez and Caño (2012); Ventura-León, Caycho-Rodríguez, Barboza-Palomino & Salas (2018), as well as those of Morato (2019), by indicating that the valuation and perceived value by the subjects are a reflection of high self-esteem.

As regards the location of the school, the data indicates that there are no statistically significant differences with respect to any of the dimensions that are correlated in the study, which shows that self-esteem is not influenced or affected by the geographical area where the students live or study. This data is relevant because, until now, this comparison had not been carried out with regard to self-esteem. The myth that students in rural areas are less valued than those in urban areas has been dispelled.

Taking into account the results by school year group, significant statistical differences are found with respect to the physical self-esteem of the first year of ESO, and the second and fourth years. The explanation that we find for this is the change in the students’ physical appearance, which, as age increases, causes the subjects of older year groups to suffer mainly psychological, physical and emotional changes that cause them high rates of disordered personal stress, as indicated by Silvia-Escorcia and Mejías-Pérez (2015); Soriano and Franco (2010).

In conclusion, the results show the existence of a higher valuation of self-esteem in boys than in girls, constrained by the physical, intellectual, emotional and relationship dimensions. This is not the case for general self-esteem. Likewise, there are no differences found due to the school’s location, but there are differences as regards the year group of the students. Finally, it should be noted that self-esteem is a fundamental aspect in adolescents’ motivation, and that it leads to having a good valuation of oneself. As Silva-Escorcia and Mejías Pérez (2015) point out, students with low self-esteem show low academic proficiency rates, non-productive behaviours at social level, hostility and apathy, among others. And in this period of adolescence, one of the most important in the development of the human being, the greatest emotional explosion occurs and develops, generated by the large number of changes and situations presented to them, and adolescents have to deal with these as a step towards maturity. Academic performance, as well as reaching goals, is a state of mind that is learned and changed through learning. Chilca (2017) and Silvia-Escorcia and Mejías-Pérez (2015).

Therefore, it is in this stage of Compulsory Secondary Education, where this aspect of the individual’s personality should be influenced and worked on the most, to combat serious and contemporary problems such as suicide, isolation, harassment among peers, among others. Their self-realization as stable people is fundamental, so that they can set important challenges and goals in their lives and with a positive emotional awareness.

For this reason, we point out the importance of developing projects and plans in order to work on self-esteem in the different ESO school years, given the importance it has for young people in these age groups, since as we have explained, there is an important spectrum of changes that affect their cognitive, physical and social level, mainly, which makes them be in a constant emotional and psychological balance. The skills they possess, as well as their skills to solve daily situations, will make them choose certain behaviors that could affect or influence their mental health. This type of situation could have been affected given the confinement to which they were exposed months ago and that would also be a reason for study to develop strengthening strategies that lead to promoting better well-being, satisfaction and better quality of life, as indicated by García -Álvarez and Soler, 2020.

In summary, and after analysing the data obtained in the correlations, everything seems to indicate that as age increases, there are worse results in physical and general self-esteem. On the other hand, the high scores on the independent scale of self-criticism by the girls, corroborate their low self-esteem with respect to the boys.

We should point out that it would be important to carry out a study with secondary school students to verify that increasing age leads to worse data on physical and general self-esteem. Likewise, and the subject of future research, a sufficiently representative sample should be collected in schools throughout the eight provinces of the region of Andalusia for a more detailed study on the self-esteem of young people. Therefore, we consider it of utmost importance to continue researching in these lines of work due to the value and impact it has on personal and social development.

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