The growing carbon footprint of tourists in Spain
a sectoral and multiregional analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.46661/rec.12541Keywords:
Sustainability, input-output analysis, carbon footprint, tourism consumptionAbstract
Tourism demand in Spain has continued to grow, increasing pressure on natural resources and intensifying its environmental impacts. In this context, this study calculates the carbon footprint of tourism consumption in Spain, distinguishing between emissions produced by resident and non-resident tourists. The main objective is to analyse the recent evolution of the carbon footprint (period 2019–2023), with special attention to key sectors and regions involved in the generation of emissions along global production chains. The results indicate that the carbon footprint generated by tourists accounts for 16% of Spain’s total footprint, which far exceeds tourism’s contribution to GDP. Of the 62,340 KtCO2e generated by tourism in 2023, 60% corresponds to non-resident tourism, whose consumption is more carbon-intensive. This is mainly due to air transport, which increased its emissions by 83%. In the case of resident tourists, the accommodation sector stands out more significantly, emitting 7,836 KtCO2e in the last year. These results highlight the urgent need to adopt strong measures that modify the level and pattern of tourist consumption. Regarding the origin of the impacts, it is found that more than half of the emissions (53%) are generated outside Spain, which limits mitigation opportunities at the national level.
Downloads
References
Álvarez, S. 2017. Volumen 5: La huella de carbono y el análisis de ciclo de vida. Editado por AENOR. Vol. 5. Huella de carbono. Madrid: Asociación Española de Normalización y Certificación (AENOR).
Asongu, Simplice A., Joseph I. Uduji, y Elda N. Okolo-Obasi. 2019. "Tourism and insecurity in the world." International Review of Economics 66: 453-472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12232-019-00330-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12232-019-00330-z
Ayuda, María Isabel, Encarna Esteban, Miguel Martín-Retornillo, y Vicente Pinilla. 2020. "The Blue Water Footprint of the Spanish Wine Industry: 1935-2015." Water. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12071872 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/w12071872
Becken, Susanne. 2019. "Decarbonising tourism: mission impossible?" Tourism Recreation Research 44 (4): 419-433. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2019.1598042 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2019.1598042
Beylot, Antoine, Baptiste Boitier, Nicolas Lancesseur, y Jacques Villeneuve. 2018. "The Waste Footprint of French Households in 2020: A Comparison of Scenarios of Consumption Growth Using Input‐Output Analysis." Journal of Industrial Ecology 22 (2): 356-368. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12566 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12566
Cadarso, María-Ángeles, Nuria Gómez, Luis-Antonio López, María-Ángeles Tobarra, y Jorge Zafrilla. 2015. "Quantifying Spanish tourism's carbon footprint: the contributions of residents and visitors: a longitudinal study." Journal of Sustainable Tourism 23 (6): 922-946. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1008497 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1008497
Cadarso, María-Ángeles, Nuria Gómez, Luis A. López, y María-Ángeles Tobarra. 2016. "Calculating tourism's carbon footprint: measuring the impact of investments." Journal of Cleaner Production 111 (Part B): 529-537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.09.019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.09.019
Cadarso, María-Ángeles, María-Ángeles Tobarra, Ángela García-Alaminos, Mateo Ortiz, Nuria Gómez, y Jorge Zafrilla. 2021. "The input–output method for calculating the carbon footprint of tourism: An application to the Spanish tourism industry." En Advances of Footprint Family for Sustainable Energy and Industrial Systems, 35-57. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76441-8_3
Cadarso, María Ángeles, María Ángeles Tobarra, Ángela García-Alaminos, Mateo Ortiz, Nuria Gómez, y Jorge Zafrilla. 2022. "The Input–Output Method for Calculating the Carbon Footprint of Tourism: An Application to the Spanish Tourism Industry." Advances of Footprint Family for Sustainable Energy and Industrial Systems: 35-57. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76441-8_3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76441-8_3
Carvajal-Aparicio, Marta, Nela Filimon, y Francesc Fusté-Forné. 2024. "'Nuturing who we are: The local branding of food tourism in Menorca biosphere reserve (Spain)." Geojournal of Tourism and Geosites 56: 1835-1844. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.56437-1351 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.56437-1351
Castillo-Manzano, José I., Mercedes Castro-Nuño, Lourdes López-Valpuesta, y Diego J. Pedregal. 2017. "Measuring the LCC effect on charter airlines in the Spanish airport system." Journal of Air Transport Management 65: 110-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2017.09.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2017.09.007
Cazcarro, Ignacio, Arjen Ysbert Hoekstra, y Julio Sánchez-Chóliz. 2014. "The water footprint of tourism in Spain." Tourism Management 40: 90-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.05.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.05.010
Cederberg, Christel, U. Martin Persson, Sarah Schmidt, Fredrik Hedenus, y Richard Wood. 2019. "Beyond the borders – burdens of Swedish food consumption due to agrochemicals, greenhouse gases and land-use change." Journal of Cleaner Production 214: 644-652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.313 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.12.313
Comisión Europea, y Dirección General de Mercado Interior, Industria, Emprendimiento y Pymes. 2017. El Sistema Europeo de Indicadores Turísticos: herramienta del ETIS para la gestión de destinos sostenibles. Oficina de Publicaciones.
Conefrey, Anita, y James Hanrahan. 2024. "Measuring the carbon footprint of inbound tourism at a destination level." European Journal of Tourism Research 36: 3610. https://doi.org/10.54055/ejtr.v36i.3178 DOI: https://doi.org/10.54055/ejtr.v36i.3178
Duarte, Rosa, Vicente Pinilla, y Ana Serrano. 2018. "Long Term Drivers of Global Virtual Water Trade: A Trade Gravity Approach for 1965-2010." Ecological Economics 156: 318-326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.10.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.10.012
Dubois, Ghislain, Paul Peeters, Jean-Paul Ceron, y Stefan Gössling. 2011. "The future tourism mobility of the world population: Emission growth versus climate policy." Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 45 (10): 1031-1042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2009.11.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2009.11.004
Dwyer, Larry, Peter Forsyth, Ray Spurr, y Serajul Hoque. 2010. "Estimating the carbon footprint of Australian tourism." Journal of Sustainable Tourism 18 (3): 355-376. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580903513061 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580903513061
Gencay, Koray, Oğuz Türkay, y Şevki Ulema. 2022. "Tourism gentrification: Barcelona and Venice." Anuario Turismo y Sociedad (31): 125-140. https://doi.org/10.18601/01207555.n31.06 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18601/01207555.n31.06
Gereffi, Gary, John Humphrey, y Timothy Sturgeon. 2005. "The governance of global value chains." Review of International Political Economy 12 (1): 78–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290500049805 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290500049805
Giljum, Stefan, Martin Bruckner, y Aldo Martinez. 2015. "Material Footprint Assessment in a Global Input-Output Framework." Journal of Industrial Ecology 19 (5): 792-804. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12214 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12214
Gobierno de España. 2025. Proyectos estratégicos para la recuperación y transformación económica (PERTE). https://planderecuperacion.gob.es/como-acceder-a-los-fondos/pertes
Gössling, Stefan, Martin Balas, Marius Mayer, y Ya-Yen Sun. 2023. "A review of tourism and climate change mitigation: The scales, scopes, stakeholders and strategies of carbon management." Tourism Management 95: 104681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2022.104681 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2022.104681
Gössling, Stefan, Brian Garrod, Carlo Aall, John Hille, y Paul Peeters. 2011. "Food management in tourism: Reducing tourism’s carbon ‘foodprint’." Tourism Management 32: 534-543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.04.006 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.04.006
Gössling, Stefan, y Paul Peeters. 2015. "Assessing tourism's global environmental impact 1900–2050." Journal of Sustainable Tourism 23 (5): 639-659. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1008500 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2015.1008500
GSTC. 2025. "La Comisión Europea lanza una consulta sobre la estrategia de turismo sostenible de la UE." Global Sustainable Tourism Council. https://www.gstc.org/european-commission-consultation-eu-sustainable-tourism-strategy/?lang=es
Hickel, Jason, y Giorgos Kallis. 2020. "Is Green Growth Possible?" New Political Economy 25 (4): 469-486. https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2019.1598964 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13563467.2019.1598964
INE. 2025a. "Cuenta Satélite del Turismo. Serie 2021-2023." https://www.ine.es/dynt3/inebase/es/index.htm?padre=6196&capsel=6197
INE. 2025b. Índice de precios al consumo. Índices nacionales: general y de grupos ECOICOP. Instituto Nacional de Estadística.
INE. 2025c. "Tourist Movements at Borders (FRONTUR). December 2024 and year 2024. Provisional data." https://www.ine.es/dyngs/Prensa/en/FRONTUR1224.htm
INE. Varios años. Tablas de Origen y Destino. Instituto Nacional de Estadística.
IPCC. 2022. Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press.
Jones, Calvin. 2013. "Scenarios for greenhouse gas emissions reduction from tourism: an extended tourism satellite account approach in a regional setting." Journal of Sustainable Tourism 21 (3): 458-472. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2012.708039 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2012.708039
Kaul, Shivani, Bengi Akbulut, Federico Demaria, y Julien-François Gerber. 2022. "Alternatives to sustainable development: what can we learn from the pluriverse in practice?" Sustainability Science 17 (4): 1149-1158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-022-01210-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-022-01210-2
Kronenberg, Kai, Matthias Fuchs, y Maria Lexhagen. 2018. "A multi-period perspective on tourism’s economic contribution – a regional input-output analysis for Sweden." Tourism Review 73 (1): 94-110. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-03-2017-0044 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-03-2017-0044
Lenzen, Manfred, Ya-Yen Sun, Futu Faturay, Yuan-Peng Ting, Arne Geschke, y Arunima Malik. 2018. "The carbon footprint of global tourism." Nature Climate Change 8 (6): 522-528. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0141-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0141-x
Lochman, Josef, y Jiří Vagner. 2024. "Assessing International Tourism's Global Environmental Impact of Food and Beverages." Problemy Ekorozwoju 19: 296-307. https://doi.org/10.35784/preko.5425 DOI: https://doi.org/10.35784/preko.5425
López, Luis Antonio, Mateo Ortiz, Ángela García-Alaminos, y María Ángeles Cadarso. 2025. "Consequences of legislation-based reshoring for EU carbon emissions in global value chains." Journal of International Business Policy. https://doi.org/10.1057/s42214-025-00216-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s42214-025-00216-8
López, Luis Antonio, Jorge Zafrilla, y Sergio Álvarez. 2017. Volumen 6: La huella de carbono y el análisis input-output. Editado por AENOR. Vol. 6. Huella de carbono. Madrid: Asociación Española de Normalización y Certificación (AENOR).
Lyle, Chris. 2018. "Beyond the ICAO’s CORSIA: Towards a More Climatically Effective Strategy for Mitigation of Civil-Aviation Emissions." Climate Law 8: 104-127. https://doi.org/10.1163/18786561-00801004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/18786561-00801004
Ma, Xiaojun, Miaomiao Han, Jian Luo, Yanqi Song, Ruimin Chen, y Xueying Sun. 2021. "The empirical decomposition and peak path of China’s tourism carbon emissions." Environmental Science and Pollution Research 28 (46): 66448-66463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14956-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14956-6
Mahajan, Sanjiv, Joerg Beutel, Simón Guerrero, Satoshi Inomata, Soren Larsen, Brian Moyer, Isabelle Remond-Tiedrez, José M. Rueda-Cantuche, Liv Hobbelstad Simpson, y Bent Thage. 2018. Handbook on supply, use and input-output tables with extensions and applications.
Mansourihanis, Omid, Mohammad Javad Maghsoodi Tilaki, Tahereh Kookhaei, Ayda Zaroujtaghi, Shiva Sheikhfarshi, y Nastaran Abdoli. 2025. "Integrating geospatial intelligence and spatio-temporal modeling for monitoring tourism-related carbon emissions in the United States." Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal 36 (1): 107-129. https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-04-2024-0156 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-04-2024-0156
Martí, Luisa, y Rosa Puertas Medina. 2019. "Participación de la Unión Europea en las Cadenas Globales de Valor: Vinculación Logística y Económica." Revista de Economía Mundial 51: 187-206.
Miller, Ronald E., y Peter D. Blair. 2022. Input–Output Analysis: Foundations and Extensions, Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
MINCOTUR. 2021. "Estrategia de sostenibilidad turística en destinos." Ministerio de Industria, Comercio y Turismo. Versión revisada en marzo 2022. https://turismo.gob.es/es-es/estrategia/V2022_Estrategia_Sostenibilidad_Turistica_Destino.pdf
Ministerio de Industria y Turismo. 2025. Estrategia de Turismo Sostenible de España 2030. https://turismo.gob.es/es-es/estrategia-turismo-sostenible/paginas/index.aspx
Miralles, Cristina Casals, Debora Barioni, Maria Serena Mancini, Joan Colón Jordà, Mercè Boy Roura, Sergio Ponsá Salas, Laia Llenas Argelaguet, y Alessandro Galli. 2023. "The footprint of tourism: A review of water, carbon, and ecological footprint applications to the tourism sector." Journal of Cleaner Production 422: 138568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138568 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138568
Mongelli, Ignazio, Frederik Neuwahl, y José M. Rueda-Cantuche. 2010. "Integrating a household demand system in the input–output framework. Methodological aspects and modelling implications." Economic Systems Research 22 (3): 201-222. https://doi.org/10.1080/09535314.2010.501428 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09535314.2010.501428
ONU Turismo. 2018. 'Overtourism'? Understanding and Managing Urban Tourism Growth beyond Perceptions. Executive Summary. Madrid, Spain: World Tourism Organization.
ONU Turismo. 2021. World Tourism Barometer and Statistical Annex, January 2021. https://www.unwto.org/news/2020-worst-year-in-tourism-history-with-1-billion-fewer-international-arrivals https://doi.org/10.18111/wtobarometereng.2021.19.1.4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18111/wtobarometereng.2021.19.1.4
ONU Turismo. 2025. Declaración de Glasgow sobre la Acción Climática del Turismo. https://www.unwto.org/es/declaracion-de-glasgow-sobre-la-accion-climatica-en-el-turismo
Osorio, Pilar, María-Ángeles Cadarso, María-Ángeles Tobarra, y Ángela García-Alaminos. 2023. "Carbon footprint of tourism in Spain: Covid-19 impact and a look forward to recovery." Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 65: 303-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2023.03.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2023.03.003
Parlamento Europeo. 2021. Resolución del Parlamento Europeo, de 25 de marzo de 2021, sobre la definición de una estrategia de la Unión en materia de turismo sostenible. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2021-0109_ES.html
Parrique, Timothée, Jonathan Barth, François Briens, Christian Kerschner, Alejo Kraus-Polk, Anna Kuokkanen, y Joachim H. Spangenberg. 2019. Decoupling Debunked: Evidence and arguments against green growth as a sole strategy for sustainability. European Environmental Bureau. https://eeb.org/library/decoupling-debunked/
Peeters, Paul, y Ghislain Dubois. 2010. "Tourism travel under climate change mitigation constraints." Journal of Transport Geography 18 (3): 447-457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2009.09.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2009.09.003
Pérez, Javier. 2019. "Cadenas Globales de valor: Una revisión bibliográfica." Semestre Económico 22 (51): 63-81. https://doi.org/10.22395/seec.v22n51a4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22395/seec.v22n51a4
Phi, Giang Thi. 2020. "Framing overtourism: A critical news media analysis." Current Issues in Tourism 23 (17): 2093-2097. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2019.1618249 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2019.1618249
Pulido, Antonio, y Emilio Fontela. 1993. Análisis input-output. Modelos, datos y aplicaciones. Madrid: Pirámide.
Reglamento (UE) 2023/956 del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo de 10 de mayo de 2023 por el que se establece un Mecanismo de Ajuste en Frontera por Carbono. 2023.
Remond-Tiedrez, Isabelle, y José M. Rueda-Cantuche. 2019. EU inter-country supply, use and input-output tables — Full international and global accounts for research in input-output analysis (FIGARO). Luxemburgo: Unión Europea.
Rico, Anna, Julia Martínez-Blanco, Marc Montlleó, Gustavo Rodríguez, Nuno Tavares, Albert Arias, y Jordi Oliver-Solà. 2019. "Carbon footprint of tourism in Barcelona." Tourism Management 70: 491-504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.09.012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.09.012
Rosselló-Batle, Beatriz, Andreu Moià, Antoni Cladera, y Víctor Martínez. 2010. "Energy use, CO2 emissions and waste throughout the life cycle of a sample of hotels in the Balearic Islands." Energy and Buildings 42 (4): 547-558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.10.024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.10.024
Santos-Rojo, Cristina, Malar Llopis-Amorós, y Juan Manuel García-García. 2023. "Overtourism and sustainability: A bibliometric study (2018–2021)." Technological Forecasting and Social Change 188: 122285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.122285 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.122285
Stefanica, Mirela. 2017. "Environmental impact of transportation in the tourism industry – dimensions and actions." Studies and Scientific Researches. Economics Edition (25). https://doi.org/10.29358/sceco.v0i25.377 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29358/sceco.v0i25.377
Sun, Ya-Yen, María Ángeles Cadarso, y Sally Driml. 2020. "Tourism carbon footprint inventories: A review of the environmentally extended input-output approach." Annals of Tourism Research 82: 102928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.102928 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.102928
Sun, Ya-Yen, Futu Faturay, Manfred Lenzen, Stefan Gössling, y James Higham. 2024. "Drivers of global tourism carbon emissions." Nature Communications 15 (1): 10384. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54582-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-54582-7
Sun, Ya-Yen, Stefan Gössling, Leif E. Hem, Nina M. Iversen, Hans Jakob Walnum, Daniel Scott, y Ove Oklevik. 2022. "Can Norway become a net-zero economy under scenarios of tourism growth?" Journal of Cleaner Production 363: 132414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132414 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.132414
Sun, Ya-Yen, Lintje Sie, Futu Faturay, Ilmiawan Auwalin, y Jie Wang. 2021. "Who are vulnerable in a tourism crisis? A tourism employment vulnerability analysis for the COVID-19 management." Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 49: 304-308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2021.08.014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2021.08.014
Tobarra, María Ángeles, Luis Antonio López, Ángela García-Alaminos, y María Ángeles Cadarso. 2025. "Identifying critical EU carbon emissions risk through global value chains." Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 74: 660-676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2025.05.016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2025.05.016
Tsutsumi, Akihiko, Ryuzo Furukawa, Yusuke Kitamura, y Norihiro Itsubo. 2024. "G20 Tourism Carbon Footprint and COVID-19 Impact." Sustainability 16 (5). https://doi.org/10.3390/su16052222 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su16052222
United Nations. 2021. UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26). Glasgow, United Kingdom. https://ukcop26.org/
Urrestarazu Capellán, Ricardo, José Luis Sánchez-Ollero, y Alejandro García-Pozo. 2021. "Social perception of the influence of public policies on the residential rental and holiday tourism rental markets." https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-156 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/ajhtl.19770720-156
Wang, Shasha, y Wei Wu. 2024. "Unveiling the hidden carbon footprint of the tourism industry: a comprehensive analysis and policy implications." Journal of Sustainable Tourism: 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2025.2469111 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2025.2469111
Wong, Poh Poh. 2004. "Environmental impacts of tourism." En A Companion to Tourism: 450-461. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470752272.ch36 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470752272.ch36
WTTC. 2021. Travel & Tourism: Economic Impact 2021. London. https://wttc.org/Portals/0/Documents/Reports/2021/Global%20Economic%20Impact%20and%20Trends%202021.pdf
WTTC. 2024. A Net Zero Roadmap for Travel & Tourism. Second edition. World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), United Nations. https://wttc.org/sustainability/climate
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Daniel Molina, Cristian Soria, Marina Sánchez-Serrano, Pilar Osorio
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This licence allows third parties to share (copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format) and adapt (remix, transform and create from the material for any purpose, including commercial purposes), provided that authorship and first publication in this journal (The Journal, DOI of the work) is acknowledged, a link to the licence is provided, and it is stated whether changes have been made to the work.
